Azliyati Azizan, Ph.D.
College of Public Health · Global Health
Contact Information:
  Office: CPH 1119
  E-Mail: aazizan@hsc.usf.edu
  Phone: (813) 974-2709
  FAX: (813) 974-8506 		Other Information:
  Dr. Azizan's Home Page
  Education & Training (PDF File - 31 KB)
  Courses Taught
  Dengue Hemorraghic Fever
  Publications
  Research & Support

I. Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever and Hemostasis PDF version  PDF
 
There are an estimated 100 million cases of dengue virus infection per year that can be caused by any one of the four serotypes of dengue virus (DEN-1 to 4) (1). An infection may result in a self-limiting febrile infection known as dengue fever (DF) (1-4). However, some infections can lead to dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), which is characterized by increased vascular permeability and abnormal hemostasis (5). WHO categorized DHF into 4 grades (1). Plasma leakage and the consequent decreased intravascular volume in DHF grades 3 and 4, can be so profound that shock (undetectable blood pressure) can occur. These grades of DHF, also known as dengue shock syndrome (DSS), can be fatal unless plasma leakage is corrected early, and has a case fatality rate as high as 44% (1, 2). Severity of DHF has been correlated with high viremia titer, secondary infection, and DEN-2 virus serotype (6).

DHF immunopathogenesis: the involvement of cytokines and dengue envelope E glycoprotein. Viral virulence (10, 11), host genetic factors represented by human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I alleles (12, 13) as well HLA class II alleles (14), and host immune response (15, 16, 17), have all been implicated in the pathogenesis of DHF. Cytokine production has been shown by many clinical studies to be important in immunopathogenesis of DHF (7). Plasma leakage, the main manifestation of DHF grade 4, has been correlated to malfunction of vascular endothelial cells, believed to be caused by exposure to elevated levels of certain cytokines (2). The cytokines elevated in DHF, but not DF patient sera are TNF-alpha (17), IL-2 (18) , IL-4 (17), IL-6 (19), IL-8 (19, 20), IL-10 (21b), and IFN-gamma. Some of these cytokines mediate direct and indirect effects on vascular endothelium, giving rise to plasma leakage (2, 7). TNF-alpha has been shown to induce plasma leakage and shock in animal models (5). IFN-gamma enhances TNF-alpha production by activated monocytes, and interacts with TNF-alpha to activate endothelial cells in-vitro (22). Dengue virus can infect endothelial cells in-vitro and induce production of IL-6 and IL-8 (19, 20, 21). Other than effects of cytokines, other studies propose that the dengue virus, specifically the envelope glycoprotein E, play an important role in the establishment of hemorrhagic manifestations of DHF (23, 7).

Impaired hemostasis contribute to DHF manifestations .Hemostatic changes observed in DHF involve mainly three factors: vascular alterations, thrombocytopenia and multiple defects in the coagulation-fibrinolysis system (23). Hemostasis is maintained by a balance between activation of coagulation and fibrinolysis (24). In the coagulation system, thrombin that is formed from prothrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin, which is later broken down in the fibrinolytic system. Normal endothelium produces TM and tPA, which are inhibitors of blood coagulation and modulators of fibrinolysis (25). Systemic infections cause an imbalance between coagulation and fibrinolysis systems, by producing TF, PAI-1 and vWF. Excessive expression of these factors can disrupt hemostasis, and lead to intravascular thrombosis, bleeding, or both (26). The coagulation and fibrinolytic systems as measured by elevated tPA, were found to be activated in the acute stage of dengue infection (25). PAI-1 level, which is elevated in DHF patients remain high in lethal DHF (27). In these cases, PAI-1 is proposed to prevent the switch from the 'procoagulant' to 'profibrinolytic' states, giving rise to hemorrhagic manifestations prevalent in DHF patients. Elevation of protein levels of TM, TF and PAI-1 (28) suggests that dengue infection may activate fibrinolysis primarily, which prompted secondary activation of the procoagulant homeostatic mechanisms (28). A very recent study found that IL-6 can regulate dengue virus-induced tPA production of endothelial cells (29).

References

  1. Solomon T and Mallewa M. Dengue and other emerging Flaviviruses. J of Infection. 2001: 42: 104-115
  2. Kurane I and Takasaki T. Dengue fever and dengue haemorrhagic fever: challenges of controlling an enemy still at large. Rev in Med Virology. 2001: 11:301-311.
  3. Rigau-Perez JG, Clark GG, Gubler DJ, Reiter P, Sanders EJ, and Vorndam AV. Dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever. Lancet.1998: 352: 971-977.
  4. Halstead SB. Pathogenesis of dengue: challenges to molecular biology. Science. 1988: 239: 476-481.
  5. Tracey KJ and Cerami A. Tumor necrosis factor, other cytokines and disease. Annu Rev Biol. 1993: 9: 317-343.
  6. Vaugh DW et al. Dengue viremia titer, antibody response pattern, and virus serotype correlate with disease severity. J Inf Disease. 2000: 181: 2-9.
  7. Huang YH, et al. Antibodies against dengue virus E protein peptide bind to human plasminogen and inhibit plasmin activity. 1997. Clin Exp Immunol 110(1): 35-40.
  8. Obeyesekere, I, and Hermon, Y. Myocarditis and cardiomyopathy after arbovirus infections (dengue and chikungunya fever). 1972. Br Heart J. 34(8): 821-827.
  9. Wali, J.P. et al., Cardiac involvement in dengue hemorrhagic fever. 1998. Int J. Cardiology. 64:31-36.
  10. Khongphatthanayothin, A., et al. Hemodynamic profile of patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever during toxic stage: an echocardiographic study. 2003. Intensive Care Med. 29:570-574.
  11. Mangada MN and Igarashi A. Molecular and in Vitro analysis of eight dengue type 2 viruses isolated from patients exhibiting different disease severities. 1998: 244: 458-466.
  12. Loke H et al. Strong HLA class I-restricted T cell responses in dengue hemorrhagic fever: a double-edged sword? J Inf diseases. 2001: 184: 1369-73
  13. Stephens et al. HLA-A and –B allele associations with secondary dengue virus infections correlate with disease severity and the infecting viral serotype in ethnic Thais. Tissue Antigens. 2002: 60: 309-318.
  14. LaFleur C. et al. HLA-DR antigen frequencies in Mexican patients with dengue virus infection: HLA-DR4 as a possible genetic resistance factor for dengue hemorrhagic fever. Human Immunology. 2002: 1039-1044.
  15. HY L et al. Immunopathogenesis of dengue virus infection. J. Biomed Sci. 2001: 8(5): 377-88
  16. Yang KD et al. Antibody-dependent enhancement if heterotypic dengue infections involved in suppression of IFNg production. J. Med. Vir. 2001: 63: 150-157.
  17. Gagnon S et al. Cytokine gene expression and protein production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of children with acute dengue virus infection. J. Med. Vir. 2002: 67: 41-46.
  18. Kurane I et al. Activation od T lymphocytes in dengue virus infections. High soluble levels of soluble interleukin 2 receptor, soluble CD4, soluble CD8, interleukin 2, and interferon-gamma in sera of children with dengue. J. Clin Invest. 1991: 88(5): 1472-80
  19. Huang YH et al. Dengue virus infects human endothelial cells and induces IL-6 and IL-8 production. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000: 63(1-2): 71-5.
  20. Bosch I et al. Increased production of interleukin-8 in primary human monocytes and in human epithelial and endothelial cell line after dengue virus challenge. J Vir. 2002: 76(11): 5588-5597.
  21. Raghupathy R et al. Elevated levels of IL-8 in dengue hemorrhagic fever. J Med Virol. 56(3): 280-5.
    1. Green S et al. Elevated plasma interleukin-10 levels in acute dengue correlate with disease severity. J Med Vir. 1999: 59: 329-334.
  22. Burke-Gaffney A and Keenan AK. Modulation of human endothelial cell permeability by combinations of the cytokines interleukin-1 alpha/beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma. Immunopharmacology. 1993: 25(1): 1-9.
  23. Monroy, V, and Ruiz, BH. 2000. Participation of the dengue virus in the fibrinolytic process. Virus gene 21(3): 197-208
  24. Hack, CE. Derangement of Coagulation and fibrinolysis in infectious diseases. Herwald H (ed): Host Response Mechanisms in Infectious Diseases. Contrib Microbiol. Basel, Karger, 203, vol 10, pp 18-37.
  25. Huang YH et al. Activation and fibrinolysis during dengue virus infection. J. Med Vir. 2001: 63: 247-251
  26. Mairuhu, ATA, et al. Is clinical outcome of dengue-virus infections influenced by coagulation and fibrinolysis? A critical review of the evidence. 2003. Lancet. 3: 33-41
  27. Van Gorp ECM et al. Impaired fibrinolysis in the pathogenesis of dengue hemorrhagic fever. J. Med Vir. 2002. 67: 549-554
  28. Wills BA et al. Coagulation abnormalities in dengue hemorrhagic Fever:serial investigations in 167 Vietnamese children with dengue shock syndrome. Clin infect Dis. 2002: 35(3): 277-85.
  29. Huang YH, et. al. 2003. Tissue plasminogen activator induced by dengue virus infection of human endothelial cells. J. Med Virology 70:610-616.

II. Mechanism of Dengue Immunopathogenesis; Specific T-cell Restricted Epitopes Correlate with Disease Severity

Viral virulence, host genetic factors represented by the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes, and host immune response, have all been implicated in the immunopathogenesis of DHF (1, 2). HLA-A polymorphisms are significantly associated with susceptibility to DHF (3). Various T-cell epitopes have been traced to multiple dengue proteins. Most of these epitopes are localized on dengue non-structural proteins, which show greater sequence homology between the dengue serotypes. In another study, T cell responses to an HLA-B*07 restricted (221-232) epitope on the dengue NS3 protein, which is an important target of CD8(+)T cells, correlated with disease severity (4). These studies support the hypothesis that activation of dengue-virus-specific CD8+ T cells, in response to dengue-specific peptide-presentation via MHC Class I molecule, play important roles in the pathogenesis of DHF.

Identification of dengue-specific T-cell epitope using "reverse-immunology"; towards development of peptide-based vaccine. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I ligands have a typical length of 8-12 amino acids. A ligand can be defined as specific "T-cell epitope" where a specific peptide presentation by MHC molecule results in T-cell activation, which then triggers T-cell-mediated immune response. Thus far, several dengue-specific T-cell epitopes have been identified but the approach undertaken has not exhausted the possibility of identifying the crucial T-cell epitopes that could be utilized for the construction of a much-needed, highly effective peptide-based vaccine. The use of "reverse-immunology" has now become a successful strategy for the identification of T cell epitopes (5). Such predictive strategy would identify peptide sequences within a protein that will effectively elicit T- cell responses, which in practice represent only a very small proportion of the total potential peptide sequences that can possibly be derived from a given protein.

References

  1. Solomon T and Mallewa M. Dengue and other emerging flaviviruses. J of Infection. 2001: 42: 104-115.
  2. Kurane I and Takasaki T. 2001: 11:301-311.
  3. Loke H, et al., J. Infect Dis.2001: 84(11):1369-73.
  4. Zivna I, et al.,. J Immunol 2002: 168(11):5959-65.
  5. Markus S,Weinschenk T and Stevanovic S. J Immunological Methods. 2001: 257:1-16.

PDF version  PDF